Diagnosing Level of Consciousness: The Limits of the Glasgow Coma Scale Total Score.

In nearly all clinical and research contexts, the initial severity of a traumatic brain injury (TBI) is measured using the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) total score. The GCS total score however, may not accurately reflect level of consciousness, a critical indicator of injury severity. We investigated the relationship between GCS total scores and level of consciousness in a consecutive sample of 2455 adult subjects assessed with the GCS 69,487 times as part of the multi-center Transforming Research and Clinical Knowledge in TBI (TRACK-TBI) study. We assigned each GCS subscale score combination a level of consciousness rating based on published criteria for the following disorders of consciousness (DoC) diagnoses: coma, vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome, minimally conscious state, and post-traumatic confusional state, and present our findings using summary statistics and four illustrative cases. Participants had the following characteristics: mean (standard deviation) age 41.9 (17.6) years, 69% male, initial GCS 3-8 = 13%; 9-12 = 5%; 13-15 = 82%. All GCS total scores between 4-14 were associated with more than one DoC diagnosis; the greatest variability was observed for scores of 7-11. Further, a wide range of total scores was associated with identical DoC diagnoses. Importantly, a diagnosis of coma was only possible with GCS total scores of 3-6. The GCS total score does not accurately reflect level of consciousness based on published DoC diagnostic criteria. To improve the classification of patients with TBI and to inform the design of future clinical trials, clinicians and investigators should consider individual subscale behaviors and more comprehensive assessments when evaluating TBI severity.

Epidemiological changes of geriatric trauma in the United Arab Emirates.

ABSTRACT: We aimed to study the epidemiological changes in geriatric trauma in Al-Ain City, United Arab Emirates, in the past decade to give recommendations on injury prevention.Trauma patients aged 65 years and above who were hospitalized at Al-Ain Hospital for more than 24 hours or died in the hospital after their arrival regardless of the length of stay were studied. Data were extracted from the Al-Ain Hospital trauma registry. Two periods were compared; March 2003 to March 2006 and January 2014 to December 2017. Studied variables which were compared included demography, mechanism of injury and its location, and clinical outcome.There were 66 patients in the first period and 200 patients in the second period. The estimated annual incidence of hospitalized geriatric trauma patients in Al-Ain City was 8.5 per 1000 geriatric inhabitants in the first period compared with 7.8 per 1000 geriatric inhabitants in the second period. Furthermore, mortality was reduced from 7.6% to 2% (P = 0.04). There was a significant increase in falls on the same level by14.9% (62.1%-77%, P = 0.02, Pearson χ2 test). This was associated with a significant increase of injuries occurring at home (55.4%-78.7% P = 0.0003, Fisher Exact test). There was also a strong trend in the reduction of road traffic collision injuries which was reduced by 10.8% (27.3%-16.5%, P = 0.07, Fisher Exact test).Although the incidence and severity of geriatric trauma did not change over the last decade, in-hospital mortality has significantly decreased over time. There was a significant increase in injuries occurring at homes and in falls on the same level. The home environment should be targeted in injury prevention programs so as to reduce geriatric injuries.

Limits of the Glasgow Coma Scale When Assessing for Sepsis in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplant Recipients.

BACKGROUND: The well-documented association between acute mental status changes and sepsis development and progression makes acute mental status an attractive factor for sepsis screening tools. However, the usefulness of acute mental status within these criteria is limited to the frequency and accuracy of its capture. The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score-the acute mental status indicator in many clinical sepsis criteria-is infrequently captured among allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant recipients with suspected infections, and its ability to serve as an indicator of acute mental status among this high-risk population is unknown. OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the GCS score as an indicator of acute mental status during the 24 hours after suspected infection onset among allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. METHODS: Using data from the first 100 days posttransplant for patients transplanted at a single center between September 2010 and July 2017, we evaluated the GCS score as an indicator of documented acute mental status during the 24 hours after suspected infection onset. From all inpatients with suspected infections, we randomly selected a cohort based on previously published estimates of GCS score frequency among hematopoietic cell transplant recipients with suspected infections and performed chart review to ascertain documentation of clinical acute mental status within the 24 hours after suspected infection onset. RESULTS: A total of 773 patients had ≥1 suspected infections and experienced 1,655 suspected infections during follow-up-625 of which had an accompanying GCS score. Among the randomly selected cohort of 100 persons with suspected infection, 28 were accompanied with documented acute mental status, including 18 without a recorded GCS. In relation to documented acute mental status, the GCS had moderate to high sensitivity and high specificity. DISCUSSION: These data indicate that, among allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant recipients with suspected infections, the GCS scores are infrequently collected and have a moderate sensitivity. If sepsis screening tools inclusive of acute mental status changes are to be used, nursing teams need to increase measurement of GCS scores among high sepsis risk patients or identify a standard alternative indicator.

The Glasgow Coma Scale: A European and Global Perspective on Enhancing Practice.

Although the Glasgow Coma Scale has made a positive contribution to the care of people with neurologic orders, variance exists in its understanding and application secondary to inconsistency in guidelines, their interpretation, and the educational approach to the use of the tool. This fragmentation has been evidenced to result in variances in practice, some potentially harmful. Also, recent evidence demonstrates human factors, such as distress, have not been addressed within such education and guidelines for use. An opportunity now exists to take a new, unified approach to education and standards for use of the tool, framed within a person-centered context.

The Use of Rotterdam CT Score for Prediction of Outcomes in Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury Patients Admitted to Emergency Service.

INTRODUCTION: Rotterdam CT score for prediction of outcome in traumatic brain injury is widely used for patient evaluation. The data on the assessment of pediatric traumatic brain injury patients with the Rotterdam scale in our country are still limited. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the use of the Rotterdam scale on pediatric trauma patients in our country and assess its relationship with lesion type, location and severity, trauma type, and need for surgery. METHODS: A total of 229 pediatric patients admitted to the emergency service due to head trauma were included in our study. Patients were evaluated in terms of age, gender, Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), initial and follow-up Rotterdam scale scores, length of stay, presence of other traumas, seizures, antiepileptic drug use, need for surgical necessity, and final outcome. RESULTS: A total of 229 patients were included in the study, and the mean age of the patients was 95.8 months. Of the patients, 87 (38%) were girls and 142 (62%) were boys. Regarding GCS at the time of admission, 59% (n = 135) of the patients had mild (GCS = 13-15), 30.6% (n = 70) had moderate (GCS = 9-12), and 10.5% (n = 24) had severe (GCS < 9) head trauma. The mean Rotterdam scale score was calculated as 1.51 (ranging from 1 to 3) for mild, 2.22 (ranging from 1 to 4) for moderate, and 4.33 (ranging from 2 to 6) for severe head trauma patients. Rotterdam scale score increases significantly as the degree of head injury increases (p < 0.001). DISCUSSION: With the adequate use of GCS and cerebral computed tomography imaging, pediatric patients with a higher risk of mortality and need for surgery can be predicted. We recommend the follow-up of pediatric traumatic brain injury patients with repeated CT scans to observe alterations in Rotterdam CT scores, which may be predictive for the need for surgery and intensive care.

Interobserver Reliability of Glasgow Coma Scale Scores for Intensive Care Unit Patients.

BACKGROUND: Intensive care units frequently use the Glasgow Coma Scale to objectively assess patients' levels of consciousness. Interobserver reliability of Glasgow Coma Scale scores is critical in determining the degree of impairment. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate interobserver reliability of intensive care unit patients' Glasgow Coma Scale scores. Methods This prospective observational study evaluated Glasgow Coma Scale scoring agreement among 21 intensive care unit nurses and 2 independent researchers who assessed 202 patients with neurosurgical or neurological diseases. Each assessment was completed independently and within 1 minute. Participants had no knowledge of the others' assessments. RESULTS: Agreement between Glasgow Coma Scale component and sum scores recorded by the 2 researchers ranged from 89.5% to 95.9% (P = .001). Significant agreement among nurses and the 2 researchers was found for eye response (73.8%), motor response (75.0%), verbal response (68.1%), and sum scores (62.4%) (all P = .001). Significant agreement among nurses and the 2 researchers (55.2%) was also found for sum scores of patients with sum scores of 10 or less (P = .03). CONCLUSIONS: Although the study showed near-perfect agreement between the 2 researchers' Glasgow Coma Scale scores, agreement among nurses and the 2 researchers was moderate (not near perfect) for subcomponent and sum scores. Accurate Glasgow Coma Scale evaluation requires that intensive care unit nurses have adequate knowledge and skills. Educational strategies such as simulations or orientation practice with a preceptor nurse can help develop such skills.

Intervención integral en el ictus / Comprehensive intervention in stroke

Introducción: se mantiene el debate sobre qué tipos de intervenciones para la recuperación del ictus ofrecen mejores resultados para el paciente. Objetivo: evaluar el efecto de una intervención integral durante seis meses sobre la recuperación funcional en pacientes con ictus. Métodos: la muestra estuvo compuesta por 42 participantes con ictus: un grupo experimental (N = 22) con una media de edad de 52,68 años (DE = 14,39) que recibió una intervención integral, intensiva y multidisciplinar, y un grupo control (N = 20) con una media de edad de 56,20 años (DE = 14,82) que no recibió este tipo de intervención. Se valoraron los siguiente índices de severidad del ictus: Escala de Coma de Glasgow, Escala Canadiense, estancia en Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos, signos de enclavamiento uncal, signos de hipertensión endocraneal, volumen del hematoma/área isquémica, desplazamiento de línea media, necesidad de cirugía y tiempo total de hospitalización. Ambos grupos eran equivalentes en estos índices de gravedad. El grado de funcionalidad fue medido con la aplicación de la escala Functional Independence Measure and Functional Assessment Measure. Esta prueba se aplicó al inicio de la intervención y 6 meses después. Resultados: se observó una evolución positiva en ambos grupos en todas las áreas de la escala. La intervención integral y un menor tiempo total de hospitalización se relacionaron con una mejor recuperación funcional en el ictus. Conclusiones: se sugiere la necesidad de realizar estrategias de rehabilitación integral en los pacientes con ictus(AU)

Introduction: debate is currently underway about what types of stroke recovery interventions are more beneficial for patients. Objective: evaluate the effect of a six-month comprehensive intervention on the functional recovery of stroke patients. Methods: the study sample was 42 stroke patients: an experimental group (N = 22), mean age 52.68 years (SD = 14.39), who received a comprehensive intensive multidisciplinary intervention, and a control group (N = 20), mean age 56.20 years (SD = 14.82), who did not receive this type of intervention. The following stroke severity indices were applied: Glasgow Coma Scale, Canadian Scale, intensive care unit stay, uncal latching signs, endocranial hypertension signs, hematoma volume / ischemic area, midline displacement, need for surgery and total hospital stay time. These severity indices were similar in the two groups. Degree of functionality was gauged with the scales Functional Independence Measure and Functional Assessment Measure. This test was applied at the start of the intervention and 6 months later. Results: both groups had a positive evolution in all the areas of the scale. The comprehensive intervention and a shorter total hospital stay were associated to better functional recovery from stroke. Conclusions: the need is suggested to implement comprehensive rehabilitation strategies in stroke patients(AU)

Study Design Features Associated with Patient Attrition in Studies of Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review.

Loss to follow-up or patient attrition is common in longitudinal studies of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Lack of understanding exists between the relation of study design and patient attrition. This review aimed to identify features of study design that are associated with attrition. We extended the analysis of a previous systematic review on missing data in 195 TBI studies using the Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended (GOSE) as an outcome measure. Studies that did not report attrition or had heterogeneous methodology were excluded, leaving 148 studies. Logistic regression found seven of the 14 design features studied to be associated with patient attrition. Four features were associated with an increase in attrition: greater follow-up frequency (odds ratio [OR]: 1.2, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.0-1.3), single rather than multi-center design (OR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.2-2.2), enrollment of exclusively mild TBI patients (OR: 2.8, 95% CI: 1.6-4.9), and collection of the GOS by post or telephone without face-to-face contact (OR: 1.6, 95% CI:1.1-2.4). Conversely, two features were associated with a reduction in attrition: recruitment in an acute care setting defined as the ward or intensive care unit (OR: 0.58, 95% CI: 0.47-0.72) and a greater duration of time between injury and follow-up (OR: 0.93, 95% CI: 0.88-0.99). This review highlights design features that are associated with attrition and could be considered when planning for patient retention. Further work is needed to establish the mechanisms between the observed associations and potential remedies.

Data quality of Glasgow Coma Scale and Systolic Blood Pressure in scientific studies involving physician-staffed emergency medical services: Systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Emergency physicians on-scene provide highly specialized care to severely sick or injured patients. High-quality research relies on the quality of data, but no commonly accepted definition of EMS data quality exits. Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) and Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP) are core physiological variables, but little is known about the quality of these data when reported in p-EMS research. This systematic review aims to describe the quality of pre-hospital reporting of GCS and SBP data in studies where emergency physicians are present on-scene. METHODS: A systematic literature search was performed using CINAHL, Cochrane, Embase, Medline, Norart, Scopus, SweMed + and Web of Science, in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. Reported data on accuracy of reporting, completeness and capture were extracted to describe the quality of documentation of GCS and SBP. External and internal validity assessment was performed by extracting a set of predefined variables. RESULTS: We included 137 articles describing data collection for GCS, SBP or both. Most studies (81%) were conducted in Europe and 59% of studies reported trauma cases. Reporting of GCS and SBP data were not uniform and may be improved to enable comparisons. Of the predefined external and internal validity data items, 26%-45% of data were possible to extract from the included papers. CONCLUSIONS: Reporting of GCS and SBP is variable in scientific papers. We recommend standardized reporting to enable comparisons of p-EMS.

The current significance of the FOUR score: A systematic review and critical analysis of the literature.

BACKGROUND: The Full Outline of Un-Responsiveness Score (FOURs) is a scale for clinical assessment of consciousness that was introduced to overcome disadvantages of the widely accepted Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS). OBJECTIVE: To carry out a systematic review and critical analysis of the available literature on the clinical application of FOURs and perform a comparison to GCS, in terms of reliability and predictive value. METHODS: Initial search retrieved a total of 147 papers. After applying strict inclusion criteria and further article selection to overcome data heterogeneity, a statistical comparison of inter-rater reliability, in-hospital mortality and long-term outcome prediction between the two scales in the adult and pediatric population was done. RESULTS: Even though FOURs is more complicated than GCS, its application remains quite simple. Its reliability, validity and predictive value have been supported by an increasing number of studies, especially in critical care. A statistically significant difference (p = .034) in predicting in-hospital mortality in adults, in favor of FOURs when compared to GCS, was found. However, whether it poses a clinically significant advantage in detecting patients' deterioration and outcome prediction, compared to other scaling systems, remains unclear. CONCLUSIONS: Further studies are needed to discern the FOURs' clinical usefulness, especially in patients in non-critical condition, with milder disorders of consciousness.

Derivation and validation of an easy-to-compute trauma score that improves prognostication of mortality or the Trauma Rating Index in Age, Glasgow Coma Scale, Respiratory rate and Systolic blood pressure (TRIAGES) score.

BACKGROUND: Multiple trauma scores have been developed and validated, including the Revised Trauma Score (RTS) and the Mechanism, Glasgow Coma Scale, Age, and Arterial Pressure (MGAP) score. However, these scores are complex to calculate or have low prognostic abilities for trauma mortality. Therefore, we aimed to develop and validate a trauma score that is easier to calculate and more accurate than the RTS and the MGAP score. METHODS: The study was a retrospective prognostic study. Data from patients registered in the Japan Trauma Databank (JTDB) were dichotomized into derivation and validation cohorts. Patients' data from the Clinical Randomisation of an Antifibrinolytic in Significant Haemorrhage-2 (CRASH-2) trial were assigned to another validation cohort. We obtained age and physiological variables at baseline, created ordinal variables from continuous variables, and defined integer weighting coefficients. Score performance to predict all-cause in-hospital death was assessed using the area under the curve in receiver operating characteristics (AUROC) analyses. RESULTS: Based on the JTDB derivation cohort (n = 99,867 with 12.5% mortality), the novel score ranged from 0 to 14 points, including 0-2 points for age, 0-6 points for the Glasgow Coma Scale, 0-4 points for systolic blood pressure, and 0-2 points for respiratory rate. The AUROC of the novel score was 0.932 for the JTDB validation cohort (n = 76,762 with 10.1% mortality) and 0.814 for the CRASH-2 cohort (n = 19,740 with 14.6% mortality), which was superior to RTS (0.907 and 0.808, respectively) and MGAP score (0.918 and 0.774, respectively) results. CONCLUSIONS: We report an easy-to-use trauma score with better prognostication ability for in-hospital mortality compared to the RTS and MGAP score. Further studies to test clinical applicability of the novel score are warranted.

Traumatic Retroclival Epidural Hematoma.

Retroclival epidural hematomas are particularly rare conditions that are frequently the result of high-energy, hyperflexion-hyperextension injuries in pediatric patients. We present the case of a 7-year-old previously healthy girl with traumatic retroclival epidural hematoma after a fall from a swing. She presented with a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 15 with severe neck pain and limitation of cervical movements in all directions. Radiological examination revealed retroclival epidural hematoma, and the patient was managed conservatively with good recovery. Although conservative management leads to good recovery in most cases, retroclival epidural hematomas should always be kept in mind regardless of the severity of trauma.

Multidisciplinary attentive treatment for patients with chronic disorders of consciousness following severe traumatic brain injury in the NASVA of Japan.

Primary Objective: The aim of this study was to demonstrate the clinical outcomes of long-term multidisciplinary attentive treatment (MAT) in patients with chronic disorders of consciousness (DOC) due to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) following automotive accidents.Research Design: Five hundred and ten patients (mean age: 40.4 years) were enrolled in this retrospective study.Methods and Procedures: Patients were provided MAT for one to several years in the eight medical facilities of the National Agency for Automotive Safety and Victims' Aid (NASVA) in Japan. Clinical status for consciousness, communication, and activities of daily living were evaluated using the NASVA grading system.Outcomes and results: Following MAT, NASVA scores at discharge were significantly improved compared to those at admission in every patient subgroup including sex, age, NASVA score, and association with/without hypoxic encephalopathy at admission. Younger age, shorter interval between injury and admission, and better neurocognitive function at admission were found to be significant and independent factors for a good prognosis.Conclusions: MAT can partially improve the cognitive and physical abilities of patients with chronic DOC. From the perspective of not only restoring a patient's daily life, but also reducing the caregiver's burden, this type of treatment program warrants more public attention.

Performance evaluation and validation of the Animal Trauma Triage score and modified Glasgow Coma Scale in injured cats: A Veterinary Committee on Trauma registry study.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the Animal Trauma Triage (ATT) and modified Glasgow Coma Scale (mGCS) scores as predictors of mortality in injured cats. DESIGN: Observational cohort study conducted September 2013 to March 2015. SETTING: Nine Level I and II veterinary trauma centers. ANIMALS: Consecutive sample of 711 cats reported on the Veterinary Committee on Trauma (VetCOT) case registry. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We compared the predictive power (area under receiver operating characteristic curve; AUROC) and calibration of the ATT and mGCS scores to their components. Overall mortality risk was 16.5% (95% confidence interval [CI], 13.9-19.4). Head trauma prevalence was 11.8% (n = 84). The ATT score showed a linear relationship with mortality risk. Discriminatory performance of the ATT score was excellent (AUROC = 0.87 [95% CI, 0.84-0.90]). Each ATT score increase of 1 point was associated with an increase in mortality odds of 1.78 (95% CI, 1.61-1.97, P < 0.001). The eye/muscle/integument category of the ATT showed the lowest discrimination (AUROC = 0.60). When this component, skeletal, and cardiac components were omitted from score calculation, there was no loss in discriminatory capacity compared with the full score (AUROC = 0.86 vs 0.87, respectively, P = 0.66). The mGCS showed fair performance overall for prediction of mortality, but the point estimate of performance improved when restricted to head trauma patients (AUROC = 0.75, 95% CI, 0.70-0.80 vs AUROC = 0.80, 95% CI, 0.70-0.90). The motor component of the mGCS showed the best predictive performance (AUROC = 0.71); however, the full score performed better than the motor component alone (P = 0.004). When assessment was restricted to patients with head injury (n = 84), there was no difference in performance between the ATT and mGCS scores (AUROC = 0.82 vs 0.80, P = 0.67). CONCLUSION: On a large, multicenter dataset of feline trauma patients, the ATT score showed excellent discrimination and calibration for predicting mortality; however, an abbreviated score calculated from the perfusion, respiratory, and neurologic categories showed equivalent performance.

Copenhagen Head Injury Ciclosporin Study: A Phase IIa Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Biomarker Study of Ciclosporin in Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Patients.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) contributes to almost one third of all trauma-related deaths, and those that survive often suffer from long-term physical and cognitive deficits. Ciclosporin (cyclosporine, cyclosporin A) has shown promising neuroprotective properties in pre-clinical TBI models. The Copenhagen Head Injury Ciclosporin (CHIC) study was initiated to establish the safety profile and pharmacokinetics of ciclosporin in patients with severe TBI, using a novel parenteral lipid emulsion formulation. Exploratory pharmacodynamic study measures included microdialysis in brain parenchyma and protein biomarkers of brain injury in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Sixteen adult patients with severe TBI (Glasgow Coma Scale 4-8) were included, and all patients received an initial loading dose of 2.5 mg/kg followed by a continuous infusion for 5 days. The first 10 patients received an infusion dosage of 5 mg/kg/day whereas the subsequent 6 patients received 10 mg/kg/day. No mortality was registered within the study duration, and the distribution of adverse events was similar between the two treatment groups. Pharmacokinetic analysis of CSF confirmed dose-dependent brain exposure. Between- and within-patient variability in blood concentrations was limited, whereas CSF concentrations were more variable. The four biomarkers, glial fibrillary acidic protein, neurofilament light, tau, and ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1, showed consistent trends to decrease during the 5-day treatment period, whereas the samples taken on the days after the treatment period showed higher values in the majority of patients. In conclusion, ciclosporin, as administered in this study, is safe and well tolerated. The study confirmed that ciclosporin is able to pass the blood-brain barrier in a TBI population and provided an initial biomarker-based signal of efficacy.

An International survey on diagnostic and prognostic protocols in patients with disorder of consciousness.

To date, no international guidelines or recommendations for diagnosis or prognosis of patients with disorders of consciousness (DoC) have been established. The International Brain Injury Association's (IBIA) Special Interest Group on Disorders of Consciousness (DoC-SIG) launched an international multicenter survey to compare diagnostic and prognostic procedures across countries and clinical settings. Objectives: To explore which specific diagnostic protocols and prognostic indices were utilized in the care for persons with DoC in different countries and to determine the usage, if any, of national guidelines in the care of such patients. Methods: The questionnaire included 17 questions in two distinct sections (I - clinical and instrumental tools and involvement of caregivers and II - clinical, anamnestic and instrumental markers). Results: Physicians composed 50% of the survey respondents (120) and were all involved in post-acute rehabilitation care. In the majority of countries, respondents reported that there were no national guidelines or recommendations for DoC care. The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R) were the most frequently used clinical scales for diagnostic purposes. The majority of respondents reported the involvement of caregivers in the evaluation of behavioral responsiveness of patient with DoC. The survey indicated that only a few centers performed neurophysiological investigations routinely as diagnostic instrumental procedures. Our results suggest that international guidelines and recommendations for the care of persons with DoC still need to be formulated and ideally agreed to by consensus.

Multicenter Validation of the Survival After Acute Civilian Penetrating Brain Injuries (SPIN) Score.

BACKGROUND: Civilian penetrating traumatic brain injury (pTBI) is a serious public health problem in the United States, but predictors of outcome remain largely understudied. We previously developed the Survival After Acute Civilian Penetrating Brain Injuries (SPIN) score, a logistic, regression-based risk stratification scale for estimating in-hospital and 6-mo survival after civilian pTBI with excellent discrimination (area under the receiver operating curve [AUC-ROC = 0.96]) and calibration, but it has not been validated. OBJECTIVE: To validate the SPIN score in a multicenter cohort. METHODS: We identified pTBI patients from 3 United States level-1 trauma centers. The SPIN score variables (motor Glasgow Coma Scale [mGCS], sex, admission pupillary reactivity, self-inflicted pTBI, transfer status, injury severity score, and admission international normalized ratio [INR]) were retrospectively collected from local trauma registries and chart review. Using the original SPIN score multivariable logistic regression model, AUC-ROC analysis and Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit testing were performed to determine discrimination and calibration. RESULTS: Of 362 pTBI patients available for analysis, 105 patients were lacking INR, leaving 257 patients for the full SPIN model validation. Discrimination (AUC-ROC = 0.88) and calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit, P value = .58) were excellent. In a post hoc sensitivity analysis, we removed INR from the SPIN model to include all 362 patients (SPINNo-INR), still resulting in very good discrimination (AUC-ROC = 0.82), but reduced calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit, P value = .04). CONCLUSION: This multicenter pTBI study confirmed that the full SPIN score predicts survival after civilian pTBI with excellent discrimination and calibration. Admission INR significantly adds to the prediction model discrimination and should be routinely measured in pTBI patients.

Glasgow Coma Scale: Generating Clinical Standards.

BACKGROUND: The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is a tool used to aid in objectively measuring the neurological status of a patient. This study aimed to evaluate the limitations and discrepancies in GCS use among nurses in an academic medical center neurological intensive care unit and compile evidence for development of a standardized GCS educational program. METHODS: Twenty nurse participants completed a survey before attending an educational intervention. Participants then attended a 90-minute educational intervention. In follow-up, participants were asked to complete a postsurvey. RESULTS: The standardized GCS educational program significantly improved nurse knowledge of the GCS as measured by presurvey and postsurvey general GCS question scores. Educational programming improved application of the GCS as measured by presurvey and postsurvey GCS verbal component, motor component, and sum scores. GCS motor score performance was the least accurate component. CONCLUSION: Participants reported that the education has informed the unit culture and emboldened clinical nurses to speak to their practice with more authority. Educational interventions should be aimed toward applied transfer of knowledge to the case-based scenarios in the clinical setting.

International survey on diagnostic and prognostic procedures in pediatric disorders of consciousness.

AIMS: 1. to investigate diagnostic and prognostic procedures routinely used by international professionals to assess children with disorders of consciousness (DoC); 2. to explore use and availability of internal and national guidelines for pediatric DoC; 3. to identify international differences in diagnostic/prognostic protocols. METHODS: The International Brain Injury Association DoC Special Interest Group emailed a survey link to 43,469 professionals. The survey included questions on diagnostic/prognostic procedures and guidelines for children with DoC. RESULTS: Data on 82 respondents [(50% physicians) primarily from Europe (43.9%)and North America (37.8%)] were analyzed. Common diagnostic tools included the Glasgow Coma Scale for clinical assessment (94%), the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised for outcome measurement (57%), and cerebral MRI (94%). Clinical features used most frequently to inform prognosis varied with patient age. Few respondents used national (28%) admission protocols for children with DoC, and most were unaware of published national guidelines for diagnostic (72%) and prognostic (85%) procedures. Compared to North American respondents, more European respondents were physicians and used neurophysiological data for prognosis. CONCLUSIONS: This international survey provides useful information about diagnostic and prognostic procedures currently used for children with DoC and highlights the need for guidelines to promote best practices for diagnosis/prognosis in pediatric DoC.